 I. Introduction
Slovenia (Slovenian Slovenija),
republic in southeastern Europe, in the Balkan Peninsula, bounded on the north by Austria,
on the northeast by Hungary, on the southeast and south by Croatia, and on the west by
Italy and the Adriatic Sea. Formerly a constituent republic of Yugoslavia, Slovenia
proclaimed its independence in June 1991. It joined the United Nations (UN) in May 1992.
The republic has an area of 20,253 sq km (7,820 sq mi). Ljubljana is the capital and
largest city.
II.
Land and Resources
Slovenia is mountainous, much like
Austria to the north and northern Italy to the west, and has heavily forested regions. The
eastern third of the republic lies within the Karst, a barren limestone plateau broken by
depressions and ridges. The highest point in the country, Mount Triglav, rises 2,863 m
(9,393 ft) and forms part of the Julian Alps in the northwestern region of the republic.
The Mura, Drava, and Sava rivers flow through the forested northeastern region of the
republic. Southwestern Slovenia has a small stretch of coastline, extending 32 km (20 mi)
along the Gulf of Venice (an arm of the Adriatic Sea).
Towns along the coastline enjoy a warm Mediterranean climate, while those in the mountains
to the north often have harsh winters and rainy summers. The plateaus to the east, where
Ljubljana is situated, have a more moderate continental climate with warm to hot summers
and cold winters.
Two national symbols, the linden tree and the chamois (a shy, antelopelike animal), thrive
throughout the republic. Coal is the most abundant natural resource in Slovenia; other
resources include lead, zinc, mercury, uranium, and silver, as well as natural gas and
petroleum.
III.
Population
The population of Slovenia at the 1991 census was 1,962,606. In 2000 the country had an
estimated population of 1,970,056, giving it an overall population density of 97 persons
per sq km (252 per sq mi). Slovenes, a Slavic ethnic group, constitute about 88 percent of
the republic's population. Slovenes speak Slovenian, the republic's official language (see
Slovenian Language). Unlike other Slavic cultures, Slovenes have been heavily influenced
by German and Austrian cultures for nearly a millennium. Despite more than 70 years of
affiliation with Yugoslavia, Slovene culture exhibits many similarities to Germanic
cultures. Slovenian is written in the Latin alphabet—unlike Serbian and many other
Slavic languages, which are written in the Cyrillic alphabet—and has many dialects. In
addition, most people in Slovenia are Roman Catholic. Ethnic Serbs (about 2 percent),
Croats (about 3 percent), and various other ethnic groups (about 7 percent) constitute the
remainder of Slovenia's population. In addition, in the mid-1990s Slovenia was home to
some 20,000 refugees from the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina (see Yugoslav Succession, Wars
of).
Some 52 percent of all Slovenes live in urban areas, particularly in Ljubljana
(population, 1995 estimate, 269,972) and Maribor (103,113), the republic's two largest
cities. Many of the remainder live in rural areas throughout the republic, particularly in
alpine villages, where skiing is one of the most popular forms of recreation. In the
cities Slovenes enjoy concerts, operas, and art galleries.
The Slovene government requires that all children attend school between the ages of 7 and
15. Almost all Slovenes over the age of ten can read and write, and 36 percent of students
receive postsecondary or higher levels of education. There are 30 institutions of higher
education in Slovenia; among them is the University of Ljubljana, which was founded in
1595.
IV. Economy
Prior to independence Slovenia was the
most prosperous of the six Yugoslav republics. However, the wars that took place in the
region during the early and mid-1990s seriously affected Slovenia's economy. The gross
domestic product (GDP) per capita was $6,052 in 1992, a sharp decline from the
pre-independence figure of $8,658 in 1990. Trade with other countries and tourism were
also limited by the war, and the large population of war refugees was a further drain on
the economy. In recent years, economic leaders have made efforts to turn the economy
around, implementing market and bank reforms and promoting privatization. The presence of
a non-Communist government since 1990, along with the republic's sound infrastructure and
skilled workforce, helped reverse the downward trend. The GDP began to grow in 1993, and
by 1995 was increasing at 5 percent a year. Inflation slowed, and unemployment decreased
to a rate lower than many countries of Western Europe. In 1998 the GDP had increased to
$19.5 billion, or $9,850 per person.
Industry constituted 39 percent of GDP in Slovenia in 1998. The republic's chief
industries produce electrical equipment, processed food, textiles, paper and paper
products, chemicals, and wood products. Agriculture accounts for 4 percent of GDP, with
dairy farming and livestock dominating this sector. Major crops include cereals such as
corn and wheat, potatoes, sugar beets, and fruits (particularly grapes). Germany is by far
Slovenia's most important trading partner in both exports and imports. The other leading
countries buying Slovenian goods are Croatia, Italy, France, and Austria. Exports include
electrical machinery, road vehicles, chemicals and chemical products, footwear, and
furniture. Tourism is also a major source of revenue, with popular resorts at Lake Bled
and in the mountains. Revenues from tourism rebounded in 1994 to increase by 8 percent
over prewar levels. The largest number of visitors are from Italy, Germany, and Austria.
Slovenia has an excellent transportation network. It contained 19,586 km (12,170 mi) of
roads in 1998, and its largest cities are connected by railroads. There are also three
major airports and a port at Koper on the Adriatic Sea. In October 1991 the republic
released its own currency, the tolar, to replace the Yugoslav dinar (166 tolars equal
U.S.$1; 1998 average).
In early 1993 Slovenia joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Conference on
Security and Cooperation in Europe (since renamed the Organization for Security and
Cooperation in Europe, or OSCE). The republic also revived economic contacts with Austria
and Italy and established new relations with Iran, China, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the
Netherlands. In June 1996 Slovenia became an associate member of the European Union (EU).
In December 1997 it was invited to begin the process of joining the organization as a full
member.
V. Government
An emerging democracy, Slovenia has adopted many elements of democratic government. In
December 1991 the Slovenian government adopted a constitution that guarantees a number of
civil rights, including universal suffrage for all Slovenes age 18 and older (Slovenes age
16 and older may vote if they are employed), freedom of religion, and freedom of the
press. Slovenia's parliament consists of a 90-member State Assembly, which makes the
republic's laws, and a 40-member State Council, which can only propose laws or request
reconsideration of a vote in the assembly. Assembly members serve four-year terms, and
council members serve five-year terms. The parliament is headed by the prime minister,
Slovenia's true head of government, who is elected to a four-year term by the assembly.
The country also has a president, who is elected to a five-year term by popular vote.
Slovenia has a multiparty system of government. After the 1996 elections, the country's
leading parties included the Liberal Democracy of Slovenia (LDS), the Slovenian People's
Party, the Social Democratic Party of Slovenia, the Christian Democratic Party, United
List, the Slovenian National Party, the Democratic Party of Slovenia, and Greens of
Slovenia.
Slovenia has eight trial courts, four appellate courts, and a Supreme Court. The Assembly
appoints all judges, including the justices of the Supreme Court. Slovenia has an
extensive network of social service programs sponsored by the government, including
low-cost medical coverage and retirement pensions.
The republic employed an army of 9,550 active-duty soldiers in 1998, with a large reserve
force. Conscription begins at age 18 and lasts seven months. Slovenia is a member of the
Council of Europe(CE), the Central European Initiative (CEI), and the United Nations (UN).
Slovenia also has signed defense accords with Austria and Hungary.
VI. History
Under the Roman Empire (27 BC-AD 476),
Slovenia was part of the provinces of Pannonia and Noricum. During the 6th century AD, the
region was invaded by the Mongolian Avars and later by Slavs who threw off Avar
domination. A period of Bavarian rule ensued, during which most of the people converted to
Roman Catholicism. In AD 623, chieftain Franko Samo created the first independent Slovene
state, which stretched from Lake Balaton (now located within Hungary) to the
Mediterranean. It lasted until late in the 8th century, when the region became part of the
Frankish Empire. In the 10th century it was reorganized as the duchy of Carantania by Holy
Roman Emperor Otto I. From 1335 until 1918, except for a brief interlude from 1809 to
1814, Slovenes were governed by the Habsburgs of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the
Austrian crown lands of Kärnten (Carinthia), Carniola, and Steiermark (Styria), except
for a minority in the republic of Venice. During the Napoleonic Wars, the region was taken
from Austria by France and reorganized as part of the Illyrian Provinces from 1809 to
1814. This brief period of liberal rule fostered Slovene and South Slav nationalism that
triumphed at the close of World War I in 1918, with the formation of the Kingdom of the
Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929). In 1941, during
World War II, Germany, Hungary, and Italy divided the territory among themselves. In spite
of forced transfers of populations during the war, since 1945 most Slovenes have lived in
the Slovenian republic, which in 1947 also acquired Slovenian-speaking districts on the
Adriatic Sea (in Istria) from Italy.
Slovenia's dissatisfaction with the Yugoslav federation grew during the 1980s, with
increased sentiment first for greater autonomy and then for independence. As Communist
power crumbled throughout Eastern Europe, Slovenia held the first multiparty elections in
Yugoslavia since World War II in April 1990. The winning coalition called for
independence, and nearly 90 percent of Slovenia's population voted for independence in a
referendum in December 1990. In June 1991, following various political upsets, including
Serbian refusal to transfer the country's rotating presidency to the Croatian
representative, Slovenia and Croatia each declared independence from Yugoslavia. The
Serb-dominated Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) sent forces to both republics in an attempt to
secure Yugoslavia's borders. In Slovenia, a ten-day war ensued, in which Slovene forces
defeated the JNA. The JNA's defeat, perhaps coupled with fighting in Serbia's closer
neighbor, Croatia, allowed Slovenia quickly to secure true independence as well as
international recognition as a separate republic. In January 1992 the European Community
(now the European Union, or EU), led by Germany, acknowledged the independence of
Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The United States acknowledged their
independence in April.
Independent Slovenia's first presidential and parliamentary elections were held in
December 1992. Milan Kucan, president of the republic since 1990, was reelected to the
office by 64 percent of the vote. The center-left Liberal Democracy of Slovenia (LDS),
headed by Janez Drnovsek, won a plurality of seats in parliament, and Drnovsek became the
country's prime minister. The Christian Democratic Party won the second largest number of
parliamentary seats.
In 1992 Slovenia began instituting economic reforms and joined various international
organizations. It also become a haven for refugees of the surrounding war-torn republics,
and by mid-1993 about 60,000 people had sought refuge in Slovenia. In 1994 and early 1995
Slovenia made progress in resolving its disputes with Italy and Croatia—the only
lingering complications from the republic's quest for sovereignty. In January 1994
Slovenia and Croatia reached an agreement on decommissioning the shared nuclear power
facility at Krsko, near the Slovenia-Croatia border. Slovenia and Italy worked
successfully to negotiate their dispute over the property rights of ethnic Italians who
fled Slovenia after World War II and whose property was confiscated by the Yugoslav
government. Italy had threatened to block Slovenia's entry into the EU until the issue was
resolved, but the Italian government backed off from this stance in early 1995. In June
1996 Slovenia signed an association agreement with the EU; in December 1997 it was invited
to begin the process of becoming a full member.
In November 1996 Slovenia held elections to the State Assembly. The LDS, which campaigned
to integrate Slovenia into both the EU and NATO, remained the country's strongest party,
winning 25 of 90 seats; however, it did not receive an overall majority. The LDS formed an
alliance with several smaller parties, bringing its total number of seats to 45; however,
the center-right opposition—an alliance comprising three parties—also controlled 45
seats. The deadlock was broken in January 1997, when a deputy defected from the
opposition, and the LDS and its partners formed a coalition government. That month the
State Assembly reelected Drnovsek as prime minister by a narrow margin. In November 1997
President Kucan won election to a third term. He drew 56 percent the vote, easily
defeating the nearest challenger, Janez Podobnik of the Slovenian People's Party.
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